methodology

polygyny

bride price

Main theoretical argument:

Gender socially and culturally constructed.

Marriage is an important cultural institution within which gender/sexuality plays out/can be understood.

Sexual behavior must be understood within a particular social context.

Relationship between gender norms/expectations and economic reality must be examined.

East Africa

– patriarchy

– outside interference (colonialism/development projects)

o created economic uncertainty

o economic impotence of men

o subordination of women

o feminization of poverty

Why? women have

– unequal access to economic resources

eg land

– limited power in dictating the terms of sexual relations

result: higher AIDs infection rate

Impact of development on women well documented in East Africa.

Less is known about how men are faring.

Within the patriarchal system, “male authority requires a material base, while male responsibility is culturally and normatively constituted.”

Yet, gender norm in both Kisii and Dar-es-Salam contradictory

– men seen as head of household but few see them as able to contribute economically to households.

Kisii – Colonial situation: men as herders, women as food producers, polygyny the norm, wealth in the form of cattle.

Colonialism – decline of importance of cattle herding, men became laborers, migrants – breakdown of traditional household – women left to manage farms.

Current situation:

breakdown of traditional forms of gaining prestige

male status linked to wealth/number of wives

marriage still linked to cattle, but most men didn’t have access to cattle any more – rise of temporary marriage

men viewed as economically ineffective/women most important economic contributors to family

high unemployment among men

men own land, but women continue to manage farms

men still view themselves as controlling women

high rate of female headed households

Women economically stressed but have strong sense of self-worth.

Men feel lack of control.

Gender norm contradictory – men seen as head of household but few see them as able to contribute economically to households.

Gender antagonism and domestic violence widespread.

Men who cross gender line to help wives are ostracized.

Population mostly Christian, yet polygyny widespread.

Dar-es-Salaam –

Current situation:

Massive in-migration

High rates of employment among men historically, followed by rising unemployment in 1980s.

Gender norm – men seen as head of household and primary income earner.

Divorce on the rise.

Informal marriage contracts on the rise.

Women’s economic independence on the rise.

Women viewed as harder working and more economically successful.

Men resentful but also agree that women must be economically active.

Women’s access to income reduces respect for husbands.

Male self-esteem suffering/as is their productivity/economic activity.

Affairs and violence become tools for rebuilding male pride.

Men have withdrawn from traditional roles (which are obsolete). Women have adapted better than men and have gained new responsibilities.

Men still living within patriarchal societies, but without the tools to exercise their power in ‘legitimate’ ways.

Patriarchy implies both privileges and responsibilities. Men are still trying to claim the former, but are unable to do the latter. This has led to a loss of respect, depression, impotence.

It also means men may lash out at women – sexual assaults/domestic violence/affairs.

Men can be seen as suffering similar fate as the 1950s housewives in the West – they are viewed as parasites.

(How did Marilyn Waring portray African men?)

Sexual norms are evolving as a result of men’s disempowerment.

Women have high expectations in terms of sexual satisfaction.

Performance failure viewed as ulitimate demasculization.

Historically a cultural acceptance of men having multiple partners – now seen as compensation for men’s reduced economic role. Only way to maintain masculinity.

Male privilege is also a trap. Since men are expected to play particular economic role which is impossible given current economic situation, they are both empowered and powerless. Similarly women are portrayed as victims of male power, and yet are excercising considerable power.

She concludes by arguing that these circumstances MUST be taken into account in addressing the problem of AIDs in Africa.

Helps explain why efforts to reduce promiscuity and increase use of condoms have not been successful in Africa.

Promotion of women’s empowerment is over-simplistic ‘solution.’

Empowering women may mean reducing men’s responsibilities. What is consequence of this?